Emotions and self-disclosure.

People often choose to use specific media and consume media content to express and regulate their emotional states [51, 52]. As a result, the use of social media largely stems from individuals’ psychological need to share or vent personal positive or negative emotions. The act of disclosing personal emotions, thoughts, and experiences to others as self-disclosure [53], and the functions of self-disclosure primarily include self-expression, self-clarification, relationship development, social validation, and social control [54]. Furthermore, the use of online media satisfies human needs for social interaction, including maintaining connections, establishing and developing friendships, pursuing love and a sense of social belonging. Particularly in the context of modern society, where interpersonal relationships are increasingly distant, individuals engage in interactions through online social media platforms to establish a sense of community, share warmth, and experience feelings of love. This helps individuals feel intimacy within social relationships and care from others, thus achieving the goal of soothing emotions and relieving stress [55]. Therefore, if self-disclosure is seen as an effective way for individuals to manage emotions and stress, what factors enhance or hinder users’ willingness to engage in self-disclosure on social media?

According to the perspectives of social exchange theory and social penetration theory, individuals are more likely to engage in self-disclosure on social media if they can gain community trust, emotional support, and social reciprocity. Conversely, the willingness to self-disclose decreases with increased privacy risks. Moreover, According to Edward T. Hall’s High and Low Cultural Context concept, France is more collective (high context) than England. That is also supported by Hofstede which shows the UK having a higher degree of individualism [56]. In other words, different social systems and cultural contexts lead to varying factors that affect individuals’ self-disclosure on social media. So, within the user base of social media in China, what are the factors influencing their willingness to engage in self-disclosure? Do these factors reflect the uniqueness of Chinese culture and social interactions?

Research has indicated that audiences are motivated by seeking pleasurable experiences and tend to choose media and content that enhance or prolong their positive emotions, while reducing or redirecting their negative emotions [57]. Social media, in particular, possesses characteristics conducive to emotional regulation. However, the potential negative emotions it can trigger, such as fatigue, depression, and anxiety, have also gained increasing attention and validation through numerous studies [58–61]. In summary, when users encounter positive/affirmative posts from “others” on social media, and if they engage in social comparisons and perceive others’ lives as more exciting than their own, they may experience psychological disparity. This can potentially lead to feelings of disappointment and the inclination to escape reality, among other adverse psychological states or behaviors. Similarly, when faced with negative posts, users may also be influenced by the unfavorable emotions of others, leading them to experience emotional downturns [62].

Goffman believed that individuals in social groups desire to construct an accepted image in the eyes of others, and therefore, they make extensive efforts in self-performance [63]. Within social media platforms established through connections with acquaintances (especially WeChat), communication often occurs among acquaintances or individuals with prior social interactions. In other words, the image individuals perform on this platform directly influences how others with a personal connection perceive them. The process of interpersonal interaction is intertwined with “impression management,” implying that individuals consciously or unconsciously shape an “idealized self” or the version of themselves that others see [63]. Xu Qianli further categorized four types of performances that exist among users of “WeChat Moments”: “idealized performance,” which primarily focuses on showcasing one’s self-image; “misconceived performance,” centered around constructing social status and knowledge; “mystified performance,” centered on content detached from the mundane world; and “remedial performance,” where individuals mitigate daily mistakes or awkward moments [64]. Through an online survey of Chinese WeChat users, found that woman users are more likely to engage in “ritualistic” usage driven by the need for “entertainment and leisure” [65]. They deliberately construct either perfect or unfortunate selves to gain attention or care from others. However, while much current research explores the factors leading users to abandon specific social media platforms, little attention has been given to the subsequent changes in emotional management and media usage behavior.

Media escapism and transition.

In fact, despite the continuous growth in the variety and user base of social media, nearly half of these platforms are experiencing saturation, leading to a gradual decline in user activity regardless of gender [66]. Results from the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) surveys reveal that as of December 2018, the usage rate of WeChat Moments had decreased by 3.9% compared to the previous year [67]. Meanwhile, features introduced by WeChat such as “moments visible for three days,” “moments grouping,” “tatus settings,” and “instant video” reflect the phenomenon of “social media escape.” In contrast, Sina Weibo has seen an increasing trend in its user base in recent years, indicating a significant tendency of users to “return to social platforms.”

Digging into the reasons, the academic community often analyzes the factors behind people abandoning the use of social media from the perspective of social media fatigue. Scholars view social media fatigue as a phenomenon that individuals experience after using social media. When the rate and volume of social information updates surpass users’ cognitive loads, they tend to choose avoidance or reduce exposure [68, 69]. Domestic scholars have also provided similar insights into the impact of social media fatigue on behavior. Social media fatigue is the feeling of exhaustion, weariness, or boredom caused by long-term use of social media, leading to user withdrawal or reduced engagement frequency [70]. System overload, information overload, and social overload can lead to users’ social media fatigue, subsequently reducing their willingness to continue using the media [71]. If social media users experience negative emotions like monotony and fatigue on specific platforms, they gradually decrease the frequency of content sharing on that platform, eventually leading to complete withdrawal or transition to other social media platforms [72].

In conclusion, whether it is social media escape or transition, both are closely linked to the influence of users’ emotions. Emotions, a highly-discussed concept, play a significant role particularly in the association between emotions, users’ social media usage satisfaction, and their usage behavior. This study aims to focus on the connection between emotions and the satisfaction and behavior of social media users, whether they lean towards a more emotional orientation, particularly among woman demographics [73]. Through exploring users’ emotional perceptions of social media content and their satisfaction levels, the study aims to investigate the usage behavior of this emotionally oriented woman demographic on social media, as well as the correlation between their emotional changes during usage and decisions to abandon, transition, or return to specific social media platforms. The objective is to expand the emotional dimension of the Uses and Gratifications Theory Model and provide a refined framework for understanding the interrelationship between users’ emotions, satisfaction, and behavior in the context of the social media era.

Multi-Channel participant recruitment.

The study initiated participant recruitment in April 2021. The recruitment process utilized a combination of “theoretical sampling,” “snowball sampling,” and “online recruitment.” A portion of participants were selected from the researcher’s personal contacts, who then recommended and introduced additional participants. Additionally, the researcher disseminated recruitment information on various social media platforms (such as WeChat Moments, Sina Weibo, Xiaohongshu, Tiktok) to widen the scope and diversity of participants.

Participant screening.

Ethical considerations, including informed consent, voluntariness, and confidentiality, were rigorously adhered to while selecting participants based on criteria such as identity, years of social media usage (over five years), and diversity (encompassing different ages, professions, and locations). Data collection was halted once information saturation was reached (i.e., substantial repetition in the data provided by participants). The final sample consisted of twenty participants.

Formal interviews.

Formal interviews were conducted between May and June of the same year, with each interview lasting approximately two hours. These interviews were organized based on the aforementioned recruitment methods and thorough participant screening.

Stringent interview process control and ethical disclosure.

As ethical review requirements and independent review units for studies utilizing in-depth interview methods are not yet mandatory in China, this study proactively informed participants about the researcher’s identity, interview objectives, and privacy protection measures in the pre-interview assessment and prior to formal interviews. Before conducting formal interviews, the researcher obtained written / verbal consent from all participants regarding the use of their basic information, interview, and recording materials. Additionally, personal information of participants was anonymized when using interview data.

The interview outline was developed based on the aforementioned literature and was further refined through in-depth probing based on participants’ narratives. Prior to the formal interviews, the researcher conducted pilot interviews with six participants to assess the appropriateness of the interview outline. The interview outline encompassed the following key aspects: personal background information (gender, age, education level, occupation, residence); social media usage patterns (years of social media usage, average daily usage duration, preferred social media platforms); motivations for using social media, types of content posted, user satisfaction, perception of emotions, intention for continued usage on social media platforms; reasons for decreased frequency of use or transition to another social media platform, and personal emotional changes.

Intense need for self-expression.

From the interview data, it is evident that women’s use of social media is primarily motivated by the need for self-expression, entertainment experiences, and social interactions. Firstly, woman users exhibit a stronger desire for expression compared to men [76]. They often view social media as an outlet for emotional expression, where they can vent negative emotions, extend positive emotions, or document daily moments. The majority of woman participants expressed their desire to capture daily events or emotions in written or visual form, enabling them to revisit and reflect upon them in the future. Looking at the evolution of societal development, humans historically used handwriting to record or disseminate information before technology became so advanced and widespread. This psychological need for recording and expression has merely transformed in form with the advent of the internet and social media. The continuity of this psychological need and behavior suggests that recording and expression aid in releasing personal psychological stress and obtaining positive emotions, such as happiness, contentment, and joy. It also contributes to enhancing personal creativity, communication skills, memory, and stress resistance, ultimately assisting individuals in overcoming challenges and achieving goals [77]. Psychological research reveals that women experience more severe appearance or body-related anxieties compared to men [78]. Worth mentioning is that among the twenty participants in this study, seven mentioned using beauty filters for selfies and posting them on social media, which boost their self-confidence. In other words, this form of self-expression also holds the advantage of enhancing self-confidence. While psychological research suggests that excessive self-presentation could signify a narcissistic personality and often manifests as negative traits like extreme self-centeredness or impulsivity without consideration for others’ feelings [79], being aware of and managing these tendencies can help women avoid being plagued by appearance anxieties in their use of social media and daily life [80]. This interview revealed that these seven participants could exhibit more positive psychological emotions and media usage behaviors, demonstrating fewer instances of negative psychological patterns like social comparison or deliberate self-presentation.

Emotional regulation under real-life pressures.

Virtual social spaces can cater to users’ entertainment needs, helping them escape the complexities of real-life distractions [81, 82]. Consistent with numerous findings from studies on uses and gratifications, social media serves as a tool for passing time, habitual leisure, temporary detachment from real-life environments, and enjoying satisfying gaming, professional, and communicative experiences [83–85]. Additionally, the fragmented and diverse information on social platforms can fulfill users’ compensatory psychological needs for enhancing various aspects of self-competence. While some research suggests that the constantly changing and updating information in social media might overwhelm users’ cognitive capacities, leading to emotional exhaustion and behaviors of disengagement from such information environments [86], the interview process in this study yielded participants’ remarks indicating that content from sources like WeChat official accounts, WeChat search, and video channels sometimes better aligns with users’ specific/targeted information needs compared to web search engines like Baidu. Through such knowledge supplementation, users can attain a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction, which contributes to a positive and proactive mood as well as behavior. In other words, social media provides more diverse content, and algorithmic features can deliver more tailored content that matches users’ interests and immediate needs, thereby reducing the time spent searching for information, alleviating the pressure associated with information retrieval, and most importantly, granting users the joy of instantly obtaining the information they require [87, 88].

The complex psychological dynamics of social interaction.

Social media can provide users with a platform for social interaction. This is particularly noteworthy for several reasons. Firstly, the accelerating pace of societal development and the ever-expanding scope of social connections have led to a widespread psychological state known as “lack of presence.” In this context, the behavior of seeking a sense of presence through social media, often referred to as “seeking validation,” is considered a form of online compensation [89]. The use of social media allows individuals to share and disseminate valuable information with other members of society, engaging in interactions and gaining social support, attention, and a sense of happiness through a single piece of information [90]. Some participants noted that seeing themselves (as individuals or as part of a family) frequently appearing in their “friends’ circle” can garner attention and recognition from others, resulting in positive and joyful emotions. Secondly, more than 80% of the participants indicated that, if their posted content did not receive likes or comments from others, or if it did not meet their expectations, they would experience feelings of disappointment, dejection, and self-doubt. Thirdly, around half of the participants experienced “fear of missing out” psychological pressure. They were afraid of being marginalized or forgotten due to missing updates from others or being unaware of widely known “news” within their social circle. Consequently, they continuously refresh their social media feeds, and this psychological pressure and behavior create a sense of time pressure that they cannot control, leading to feelings of low spirits and discouragement [91]. Fourthly, some participants mentioned that not posting in their friends’ circle for an extended period could prompt certain friends to question them, suspecting that they’ve been blocked or deleted. To alleviate this psychological burden, users might passively post content to clarify the state of their social relationships. Lastly, the use of social media can trigger detrimental psychological effects stemming from social comparison [92]. Throughout the interview process, most participants mentioned experiencing social comparison when browsing others’ (especially relatives’ and friends’) updates. This phenomenon can lead to concerns about appearance, body image, financial status, social standing, self-competence, and even depression or a loss of confidence in life.

In summary, the above analysis indicates that social media users have the right to decide on the content and timing of their information posts, as well as the scope of their network interactions. They can achieve social interaction and psychological satisfaction by constantly updating their own posts and browsing others’ updates. This sense of control over social media and the extension of one’s online connections help alleviate the stress and negative emotions brought about by real-life pressures [93]. Interviewees seek to express their emotions through self-disclosure, entertainment, and social interaction within the online community, as a way of self-care within this virtual space. However, when an individual’s use of social media shifts from being active to passive, they may experience feelings of disappointment, fatigue, self-doubt, and a sense of being lost [94]. Although users with a stronger sense of self-control can use social media correctly and freely, most of the woman participants in this study expressed that the interactions in this virtual space lack the nonverbal cues and warm experiences of in-person communication. It is easy for them to misinterpret others’ opinions about them or the outcomes of interactions, leading to self-doubt and self-negation. This can result in escalating negative emotions and even have a detrimental impact on their daily lives.

Emotion management: Reasons for abandoning or transferring to other social platforms.

Self-concealment. Presenting genuine life statuses or venting negative emotions can lead to excessive concerns, unnecessary worries, or reproaches from others, such as family, friends, colleagues, or superiors.

It can also result in the accumulation of negative memories for oneself. As mentioned earlier, the dynamic posting on social media often serves as a mere daily record, reflecting an individual’s current psychological state. While receiving attention, care, and greetings from others can provide social support and a sense of presence, it can also impose greater pressure on individuals to explain themselves to the outside world. This ultimately does not contribute to the alleviation of stress and negative emotions. Some respondents indicated that they have an urge to express during emotional fluctuations. However, considering the possible reactions from family members’ concern, friends’ sympathy, or others’ negative perceptions of one’s ability to cope, this immediacy may be suppressed. Furthermore, reflecting on these posts later might reveal one’s immaturity at the time, leading to reduced expression desire and frequent cases of editing and deleting. In addition, the common behavior resulting from this psychological trigger includes periodically deleting or setting previously posted content as visible only to oneself.

Prolonged immersion in social media can be influenced by the media content and the emotions and life statuses of others.

According to the theory of emotional contagion, people’s emotions can be influenced by the emotions of others, resulting in experiencing the same emotions as others [99]. Most respondents mentioned the strong emotional contagion effect within social media during the COVID-19 pandemic. They expressed that during that period, they felt immense panic because everyone was sharing negative information and expressing fear. Similarly, if positive information or “positivity,” such as the Olympics or national holidays, was being conveyed by everyone, individuals would feel inspired, hopeful, joyful, and satisfied. Similar findings were also observed in Kramer et al’s research, indicating that when individuals see fewer negative emotional messages posted by their social media contacts, they also post fewer negative emotional messages [100]. This finding suggests that individuals’ perceptions of others’ emotions and collective norms can affect their own emotions and behavior. Consequently, respondents stated that they would choose to conceal or withdraw from such media spaces to gain tranquility, as they did not want to be influenced by others’ or collective emotions and norms. Simultaneously, individuals also tend to self-conceal due to concerns that their posted content might negatively affect others’ psychological and behavioral responses.

The constant influx of updates in social media leads users to experience social fatigue and weariness, subsequently decreasing their engagement and willingness to participate.

The proliferation of weak-tie friends and commercial invasions in platforms like the friend circle on WeChat exacerbates the overload of information and social interactions. Nearly all respondents believe that there is an increasing amount of irrelevant or commercial information in social media (especially WeChat friend circles), which not only intensifies the pressure of selecting useful information, but also leaves them fatigued from the effort of fully browsing through content out of fear of missing something important. Respondents who are in the workplace also noted that the friend circle is becoming a tool for company branding and commercial promotion. As a result, they feel a loss of autonomy over their use of the friend circle, being compelled to passively post content required by their superiors. Moreover, they find themselves obligated to “like” work-related content to demonstrate their commitment to their jobs to colleagues and supervisors. The once emotionally resonant action of “liking” has gradually faded into an implicit form of commercial social currency, leading individuals to grow tired of traversing both online and offline realms in a virtual and detached social landscape.

In connection with the previous analysis, as social platforms become increasingly dominated by commercial activities, their content loses its value for users seeking leisure, entertainment, and stress relief.

Respondents indicate that the excessive presence of commercial advertisements and “showcasing children” content within social networks lacks informational value. They are unable to derive psychological or emotional satisfaction from such content. Moreover, some personal announcements (academic achievements, work accomplishments, personal relationships, etc.) trigger feelings of self-doubt and confusion due to comparison, thereby diminishing their willingness to browse and engage with such content.

Media shift. Users initially have a significant degree of autonomy when engaging with a particular social media platform. They can freely express personal emotions or opinions according to their own wishes without being easily constrained by external factors or crafting content to cater to others and societal norms. However, as their personal social networks expand, social spaces become commercialized, and individuals become more aware of the behaviors and norms of others and collectives, their control over social media gradually diminishes. This struggle between reliance on and being controlled by social media leads to a sense of self-disorientation and prompts behaviors of self-concealment, escape, and shifting to protect themselves from intrusion.

Taking a closer look, participants experience something akin to a medical withdrawal reaction in the short-term process of controlling or reducing self-expression and pretense. This reaction involves being increasingly entangled by the fear of missing out and sinking into a sense of melancholy, prompting them to once again drift back into the social media environment. However, if they successfully endure this process, users find that their emotions and daily life gradually return to normal, leading to more positive emotions and a sense of happiness. Some participants mentioned that when they refrain from browsing or posting on their friend circles, they prioritize sharing their needs or emotional challenges with their close friends, family, or “small groups” (meaning groups of friends, usually within five people). Real-life friends and deep conversations or jesting with them provide more comfort and solace than the fleeting attention and consolation from the virtual “liking” interactions. However, a more noteworthy phenomenon is that over seventy percent of respondents indicated that they feel more relaxed and at ease when conversing with strangers in the online space. They also seem to worry less about comments from strangers and find it beneficial to alleviate negative emotions or maintain emotional stability influenced by strangers’ lives or emotional states. In summary, women tend to choose self-concealment due to the perceived adverse effects of habitual social media on their emotions. Yet, they also continually explore, attempt, or develop other means of self-expression and social functions in order to satisfy their impulses and needs for self-expression.

Taking WeChat Moments as an example, while extending users’ social networks, it also weakens the emotional satisfaction that the original “strong ties” in their social relationship network could provide, leaving people connected but still feeling lonely. Most respondents mentioned that they still frequently browse through their friend circles without commenting or liking any posts. Nevertheless, their emotions are still influenced by the content they view, leading to feelings of joy or sadness, contentment or jealousy, relaxation or anxiety. They have an urgent need for a space where they can authentically express themselves and release negative emotions. Some respondents even mentioned that they shift their attention to previously abandoned social media platforms, such as QQ Space, Renren, or Sina Weibo, to document their daily lives, vent emotions, or reconnect with long-lost friends. They may also transition to new media platforms, such as TikTok, Kwai, or Wesee to seek relaxation, enjoyment, and a sense of belonging. Delving into the interview content, the participants’ use of and emotional changes in media other than WeChat Moments can be summarized into the following three patterns:

Reverting to previously abandoned media environments. After a significant increase in the popularity of WeChat Moments, the popularity of Tencent QQ, Sina Weibo, and the once-popular Renren Network (formerly known as Xiaonei) among college students sharply declined. However, with users feeling a reduced sense of control and satisfaction in WeChat Moments, some individuals began tentatively returning to previous media environments. Some interviewees mentioned that revisiting old media environments provided them with a warm and pleasant experience related to “usage memories.” They expressed feelings of happiness and satisfaction. Within these old environments, users engaged in communication and interaction after seeing updates from many long-lost friends, rebuilding friendships and gaining support and social satisfaction. Additionally, some Weibo users created a “yearly calendar tree hole” on their personal pages, meaning they posted a dynamic (mostly with a year label) and irregularly shared personal feelings. This “recording” behavior is often inconspicuous to both friends and strangers, and it does not influence others, allowing users to achieve psychological satisfaction in expressing their authentic needs and daily recording desires.

Transitioning to emerging media platforms. Some respondents, due to their friends’ usage recommendations, exposure to commercial advertisements, or endorsements by celebrities, turn their attention to specific media platforms. Their initial satisfaction with these platforms may lead to a sense of immersion and subsequent negative psychological effects. In general, the most frequently mentioned platforms by respondents include TikTok, Kwai, Xiaohongshu, Instagram, Soul, Meipian and “Oasis. From the perspective of uses and gratifications, these platforms tend to fulfill users’ desires for leisure, escapism, and authentic self-expression. Users often engage with content by participating in discussions and seeking validation through comments, all while minimizing the potential for negative emotions stemming from disagreement or criticism of their viewpoints or stances. However, some respondents also believe that their habit of immersing themselves in social media or browsing strangers’ updates has become a daily routine. While this behavior helps alleviate real-life stress, it brings along a burden of media consumption. In other words, they find it difficult to control their urge to browse, leading to anxiety and self-blame.

Developing alternative media spaces not primarily focused on social functions. In this context, many respondents mentioned media platforms, such as Ximalaya, NetEase Cloud Music, and Keep. The main reason for choosing these platforms is that they are driven by users’ personal interests, such as listening to audiobooks, music, or engaging in fitness activities. These platforms were not initially designed with social interaction as their core operation, but their inherent comment functionality has naturally evolved into a space for exchanging opinions. Most respondents believe that connecting with online peers who share similar interests and needs allows for better understanding of their current selves. Through the exchange of opinions in the comments section among diverse members, individuals are more likely to embrace their imperfections and cultivate mental resilience and positive behaviors to overcome challenges in real life.

Overall, the reasons behind individuals reducing their frequency of use and exposure on social media are diverse. Apart from the commonly discussed and studied phenomena of social fatigue and exhaustion, users’ desire for higher quality content on social media, peer pressure, self-comparisons, concerns about others misinterpreting their content, considerations about their potential impact on others, and more, all contribute to users engaging in self-concealment on social media. Additionally, users may choose to transition to familiar network platforms, share personal life updates and emotional release, establish new social circles, and achieve emotional resolution, leading them to use or explore other platforms for their social interactions. However, as previously mentioned, users are subjective individuals with agency, and their behaviors are not static. Whether users feel pressure and evaluation from others, experience social fatigue, exhaustion, engage in social comparisons, or encounter imbalances in social norms within any social media environment, these factors may lead to new instances of self-concealment and a shift to other social media platforms. This is all in an effort to regain autonomy and control over their online experiences.

Development and maintenance of social media features.

This study affirms that women’s use and reliance on social media stem from the positive emotions and experiential satisfaction derived from platform functionalities and content, which facilitate self-expression, entertainment, and social interaction. On the one hand, the act of freely writing within the social space allows users to achieve psychological value through self-disclosure, self-presentation, and self-reflection. On the other hand, social media platforms provide users with the means to develop, establish, and maintain social capital, aiding in expanding social networks and maintaining existing social circles. By sharing personal updates and information content with friends, users can cultivate a sense of social belonging and improve others’ impressions of themselves [100]. When individuals experience feelings of depression, sadness, or insecurity, interacting with friends and acquaintances on social media can provide emotional support, knowledge, information, and practical assistance to alleviate negative emotions [84]. In other words, the use of social media can beneficially assist users in regulating negative emotions, fostering a sense of social belonging and security. Additionally, social media offers users interesting and entertaining content that, compared to traditional media, is more immediate and interactive. It can help users temporarily escape from real-world pressures, relax their mood, pass the time, and attain a sense of happiness and psychological satisfaction through entertainment experiences [84, 112]. In essence, if social media functionalities and content can consistently fulfill users’ psychological, social interaction, and entertainment needs, users will be inclined to increase their self-disclosure and willingness to continue using the platform based on the positive emotions and satisfactory media experiences they gain. Conversely, if these needs are not met, users might engage in self-concealment, withdraw from the platform, or migrate to other social spaces to seek the aforementioned satisfaction.

Of greater concern is the current trend towards increasing diversity in social media platforms and their functionalities. Developers are becoming more attuned to users’ demands for “emotional expression.” As social media, driven by commercial interests, evolves to cater to users’ ever-changing needs, algorithms are being integrated to dynamically adjust and deliver relevant information content to users in real time. Additionally, the gradual introduction of commercial advertising is taking place. The outcome of this development may lead users into an “echo chamber” environment, which not only hinders users’ objective understanding of current events but also amplifies collective negative emotions such as anger, depression, and fear, thereby exerting detrimental effects on individuals and society as a whole. Consequently, social media developers need to be acutely aware of the drawbacks associated with algorithms and responsibly rectify media operation mechanisms, in order to foster a positive online environment and socially responsible social platforms.

User media usage.

This study underscores that women tend to be more emotionally inclined than men. They are more attuned to social norms, the emotions of others, and are prone to social comparison. Their authentic self-expression or presentation might be concealed due to the perception of social norms or transformed into self-presentation due to social comparison. The outcome could be a relief from negative emotions through the acquisition of social capital, a sense of belonging, and entertainment experiences, or an exacerbation of negative emotions due to social fatigue and a stark contrast between virtual and real life. In fact, numerous studies have confirmed that social media users are inclined to present themselves in favorable ways, such as being superior, happy, or perfect. [113, 114]. However, it is important to recognize that social comparison in the online space is often meaningless and distinct from reality [92, 115, 116]. The consequences of comparing oneself to others are typically negative, including depression, low self-esteem, and decreased happiness [115–117]. In his book “Escape the Marginal Life,” Hu Zhan Gao suggests that we need to accept our imperfections and reduce comparisons with others to attain a relaxed and content life [118]. Users should have a more rational understanding of their emotional dynamics and the factors that trigger emotional fluctuations in order to objectively evaluate and use social media. By facing and continually reflecting on their relationship with social media, users can use it moderately to regulate their emotions and avoid being manipulated by the media, thereby preventing themselves from getting caught in a negative emotional spiral [119]. Additionally, users should be mindful of the potential harm their personal statements might cause to others’ emotions, enhance their media literacy to prevent negative emotional contagion, and mitigate the potential adverse consequences.

Social media content management and interventions for public mental health.

Relevant stakeholders could consider adopting the marketing approach used for commercial advertisements. They could periodically deliver “educational” or “guidance-oriented” public service information to users, aiming to promote and encourage users to adopt a proper perspective on and use of social media. Ultimately, through the responsible usage, development, and effective management of social media by individuals, businesses, and governments, a rationalization of online emotions, the promotion of healthy social media platforms, and the fostering of positive societal development can be achieved.